Compare Bronfenbrenner and Erikson Essay

liveliness Develop ments Theories offer explanations of how the single(a) changes and develops finishedout their lifetime. While this objective is constant, the focus of these theories vary. Eriksons Psycho social learning Theory adopts an intra someoneal focus, outlining club get along re latishd stratums of the life cycle while Bronfenbrenners Ecological St progress Theory focuses on five socio-cultural stages in spite of appearance which the individual moves, inter individual alto presshery, over time. This essay will focus on both these theories, their implications in the world of adult upbringing, particularly from the perspective of experience within two South Kerry self-aggrandising raising Centres and finally the atomic number 18as where these theories may concur and tell. Erik Erikson was a Neo-Freudian Psychologist who developed a lifespan theory identifying eight stages of psychosocial gentleman growing.As Erikson and his wife, Joan, entered their ordina l decade, they discovered a one-ninth stage. Joan Erikson completed exertion on this stage from notes do by her husband before he died and from her own observations. In fact, Erik and Joan Erikson were co-collaborators without their years together as evidenced in the following statement, To restate the sequence of psychosocial stages throughout life means to take certificate of indebtedness for the terms Joan Erikson and I have originally attached to them(Erikson E.H. cited Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997,p.55). likewise, while recounting a trip to Los Angeles where Erik Erikson had been invited to inaugurate the stages to a group of Psychologists and Psychiatrists, Joan Erikson tells of her uneasiness while they discussed the presentation. At this stage, there were seven stages in their model. In a shocking moment of clarity I saw what was wrong (Erikson E.H & Erikson J. 1997 p.3). She had spotted that We were missing and subsequently, they added an eighth stage entitled Gener ativity vs. Stagnation.This hearty contribution was made by Joan Erikson on the trip to the train stead where Erik could catch the Los Angeles train, and then for me to hurry back to home and the children (Erikson E.H.& Erikson J. 1997, p.2). Eriksons Psychosocial Theory prepares that personality develops through ball club stages across the entire lifespan. Personality tush be said to develop according to steps regulate in the mankind organisms readiness to be driven forward, to be aware of and to interact with a widening social wheel spoke (Erikson 1959 cited Tennant M. 1997 p.33). Each of these stages involves disputes and conflicts which, if successfully resolved, allow theindividual to develop a strength, or virtue which they bring with them into the following stage. If unsuccessfully resolved, the individual proceeds into the next stage not only without this strength but with a corresponding forbid section which is likely to impede their forward-looking development. Erikson refers to these strengths as syntonic elements and the negative elements as dystonic elements. For example, at infancy the first stage, age 0-1 years, the conflict or challenge experienced by the individual is trust vs. mistrust.The syntonic element that might result is hope, the dystonic element is withdrawal. Erikson explains vs. as standing for versus and yet also, in the light of their complementarity, for something like visa versa. (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997, p.55). Erikson does not hold that that an individuals resolved state should lay at the end of the continuum. The child also require to develop some healthy mistrust, such(prenominal) as learning to discriminate between dangerous and unhurt situations (Bee & Boyd 2003, p.258). It is only in experiencing and understanding these opposites such as trust and mistrust that we can develop the applicable strength. At individually of these age related stages, the individual is in communication and conflict with a significant psychosocial relationship. Again, for example, at the first stage, Erikson states that this relationship is with the mother. Others are seen in the following chartEriksons psychosocial crisis stages(syntonic v dystonic)Freudian psycho- sexual stageslife stage / relationships / issuesbasic virtue and second named strength (potential absolute outcomes from each crisis) maladaptation / malignancy(potential negative outcome one or the other from unhelpful experience during each crisis) 1. Trust v qualmOralinfant / mother / feeding and being comforted, teething, sleeping Hope and DriveSensory aberrancy / Withdrawal2. Autonomy v Shame & DoubtAnaltoddler / parents / bodily functions, toilet training, sizeable control, walking Willpower and Self-ControlImpulsivity / Compulsion3. Initiative v GuiltPhallicpreschool / family / exploration and discovery, bet on and play Purpose and DirectionRuthlessness / Inhibition4. Industry v InferiorityLatencyschool-age child / school, teachers, friends, neighbourhood /achievement and accomplishment Competence and MethodNarrow Virtuosity / Inertia5. Identity v federal agency ConfusionPuberty and Genitalityadolescent / peers, groups, influences / resolving identity operator and channeliseion, becoming a grown-up Fidelity and Devotion warmth / Repudiation6. Intimacy v Isolation(Genitality)young adult / lovers, friends, work connections / intimate relationships, work and social life Love and AffiliationPromiscuity / Exclusivity7. Generativity v Stagnationn/amid-adult / children, community / expectant back, helping, contributing Care and ProductionOverextension / Rejectivity8. Integrity v Despairn/alate adult / society, the world, life / meaning and purpose, life achievements Wisdom and RenunciationPresumption / Disdainhttp//www. dividing lineballs.com/erik_erikson_psychosocial_theory.htm Joan Erikson, reviewing their lifecycle theory (while adding the ninth stage),notes that the syntonic element is always mention ed first, before the dystonic. Stating that it should be noted that a great deal circumstances may place the dystonic in a much dominant position (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997 p. 106). She continues that old age is such a circumstance. For this reason, in her account of the ninth stage she places the dystonic first i.e. Despair and Disgust vs. Integrity Wisdom (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997, p.106) and recounts a revisiting of all the stages, this time with different virtues emerging (see chart below), ideally culminating in a state of gerotranscendence. Lars Tornstam defines gerotranscendence as a shift in perspective from a materialistic and rational vision to a much cosmic and transcendence one, normally followed by an increase in life satisfaction (Tornstam cited Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997, p.123).www.intropsych.comEriksons theory highlights the ask to provide age appropriate activities for the students. Also, within the demesne of Youthreach and VTOS broadcasts, par ticular attention might be effrontery to stimulating identity exploration in adolescents. For example, within the Fetac Personal and Interpersonal Skills Module, helping the student explore their strengths, aptitudes, learning styles, personality types and through communication with outside agencies, encourage career exploration. Early school leavers, as is evident in one South Kerry Youthreach programme, often have experienced social and educational going and as such are vulnerable to unemployment, depression and the growing number of suicides are always a concern. Very often, a single parent is the sole guardian and this parent is female, as are the bulk of teachers and social workers. Positive office models, with whom the young person can identify, have been shown to help in promoting health care in young tidy sum. Local role models and peers can also play an important role in agilely promoting projects, and have the capacity to allay fears or embarrassment that some young men might feel about getting involved (Ric unverbalisedson N, Clarke N. & Fowler C. 2013, p.111).Education centres can organise support from such positive role models. Regarding Eriksons stage of Young Adulthood, Education Centres provide a social scene where slew can meet, communicate and escape the isolation thatoften results from unemployment. Adult education provides an opportunity for a kind of self- generation concerned with further identity development. (Erikson 1998 p.67) Apparent to those involved in this field is the manifestation of care and respect that the adult has for their impertinently learning, a virtue sadly missing from the unwilling schoolchild of their yesteryears. As retirement age is forced forward and healthcare education promises longer active lives, there is no reason why adult education should not be available to people into their nineties. What better way to synthesise integrity and despair than using ones wisdom, sharing with others while learning n ew things. Despair expresses the feeling that time is now short, too short for the attempt to start another life and try out understudy roads(Erikson 1963 cited Erikson E.H.& Erikson J.M. 1997 p.113) Adult education might just offer an alternate road. Tutors might also integrate older people in the community to come in to the centres to contribute their knowledge.Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory is the scientific study of the development of the individual person as they experience the bi-directional influences encountered within the various surrounds throughout their lifespan. Intelligence and emotion have been named as mediators for this development and identity and competence has been described as the outcomes. (Garbarino and Abramowitz, 1992 cited Graham A. 2013, p.32). Two types of risks to positive change are identified. These are direct threats and the absence of opportunities. (Garbarino and Abramowitz, 1992 cited Graham A. 2013, p.32). These risks can be biological or socio-cultural.There is interplay between these two sources and deficits in one source may be compensated by richness in the other. Bronfenbrenner categorised the environment as a nested arrangement of structures, each contained within the next. (Bronfenbrenner 1977, p.514 ). Adapting terminology from Brim (1975) Bronfenbrenner names these structures as microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems, macrosystems and chronosystems. Bronfenbrenners Ecological Theory of Development(http//highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0073378585/660384/san78585_c03_072_11)A Microsystem is the complex of relations between the ontogeny person and environment in an immediate setting containing that person (Bronfenbrenner 1977, p.514). This includes family, friends, neighbours, school and work. The individuals development is reached by the tactual sensations, attitudes, temperament and personality of the various people within these settings, but the individual, according to Bronfenbrenner, is not a p assive recipient but is someone who helps construct the settings. (Bronfenbrenner 1977 cited Graham A. 22013, p. 33). The mesosystem comprises the interrelations among major settings containing the developing person at a particular point in his or her life. (Bronfennbrenner U.1977,p.515).The better interconnected the microsystems, the more consistent the individuals development is likely to be. The exosystem is an influence system which contain both buckram and informal structures which impinge on or encompass the settings in which the developing person in ensnare (Sugarman L.1993, p.11). The exosystem is an extension of the mesosystems. This refers to a collection of settings in which the individual does not directly interact but which affect him or her nonetheless. This would include the government, medical system, labour market, mass media and the neighbourhood. Macrosystems, the fourth of Bronfenbrenners layers of influence, involves the culture within which the individual li ves carried often unwittingly in the minds of the societys members as ideology made manifest through customs and practice in everyday life (Bronfenbrenner U. 1977 p.515).The influence of these customs and beliefs cascade go through through all the other systems. The Chronosystem was later added by Bronfenbrenner and is described as a research model that makes potential examining the influence on the persons development of changes (and continuities) over time in the environments in which the person is living (Bronfenbrenner U. 1986a p.724). These changes are sociohistorical and are considered as occurring within the individual and also within the environment. Changes can be normative (school, new relationships, getting a job, giving birth) or non-normative (divorce, illness, death).In the further education setting, Bronfenbrenners theory is useful inimplying the benefits of helping offset risks that may apply to the student, such un-nurturing home environment, low-down interpersona l relationships, violence and the absence of opportunities experienced such as lack of education to date, limited skills, shortsighted job opportunities and lack of self- awareness. Creating experiences where the students can develop intellectually and emotionally through the academic programme as well as teamwork, outings, reflective practice and empathy building. Bronfenbrenner stresses the value of the interconnectedness of the microsystems. Within a South Kerry Youthreach programme there is typically very poor connectedness between the education centre, the families and the communities. Open days often have few or no parents attending with mayhap just a few professionals such as guards, social workers and other education officers turning up to appreciate the work on display. Also anecdotal evidence shows very poor awareness of the programme in the community.This centre is working hard at increasing community awareness and mutual rapport by involving students in local generosit y events, community art exhibitions and development of a work experience programme. Many second chance education students are angry and aware that they have in some way been failed by structures such as government, medical system, labour market, media and the neighbourhood. Awareness of the systems can be poor and many another(prenominal) adult students lack the authority and basic literacy skills to investigate and negotiate these systems. The dialogue man is critical and knows that although it is within the power of men to have and transform in a concrete situation of alienation men may be stricken in the use of that power (Friere P. 1975 p.63). Modules such as Communications, SPHE, Personal Effectiveness and Personal and Interpersonal Skills should perhaps be regarded as a means of increasing this sense of efficacy and knowledge of the exosystem. Also inviting people who hold power within these systems to come in to centres to talk to the students may help break down barriers and increase awareness.Cultural influences affect how we think, feel and act. In one South Kerry Youthreach centre unconscious belief systems are apparent in casual racist comments and career aspirations (childcare and hairdressing for girls, construction and mechanics for boys) or in some cases, no aspirations of employment at all in keeping with family history. A more privileged young person might perceive good group participation as a positive aspiration.However, in one South Kerry Youthreach programme it is reported that during initial interviews, prospective students, when asked how they might get on in a group situation tend to perceive this question as are you a trouble-maker? and answer that they intend to ignore everyone in the group and just mind their own business believing this to be the correct answer. The work of educators here might entail helping to compel positive group experience and also help to open doors that might enrich the individuals life, create an atmosp here of curiosity and questioning of beliefs, values and culture and introduce positive and varied role models. Overtime, many changes effect the development of the individual.This time factor may be within a lifetime, or spanning decades. practically it is a non-normative change such as marital breakdown, redundancy or recovery from illness that forces a re-evaluation and brings a person back to education. Helping the individual cope with change by creating opportunities for new identities and competencies is the work required here.Erikson and Bronfenbrenner, both psychologists, have examined the development of the individual over their lifespan. Although Erickson organises his theory in terms of age related stages, and Bronfenbrenner in systems, neither theorist attempts to explain change and development in terms of age only. All life stage theorists look at the processes that bring about these changes and as Sugarman points out What we can say about change is determined by our r esearch design that is, what we choose to measure, how and why. (Sugarman L. 1986, p.13). Eriksons research design studies intrapersonal changes in the individual and explains that these changes occur within particular chronological age groupings, within particular social settings as a result of the resolution of tensions experienced. However, Bronfenbrenner on the other hand takes a wider socio-cultural view and has researched the changes occurring in the individual within the many settings, within the many systems in which the individual interacts. He categorised the environment as as consisting of interrelated and nested structures (Jordan A., Carlisle O., & Stack A, 2008, p.82). Unlike Erikson, Bonfenbrenner has been criticised for paying too teeny attention to biological and cognitive factors although he expanded his theory to a bioecological theory later on. Erikson represents the individualsdevelopment as ordered and linear whereas Bronfenbrenners perspective is one of rand om and multidirectional development. It would, however, be unfair to suggest that Erikson did not take account of the various social and cultural influences that Bronfenbrenner focused on, thereof his Psychosocial Theory . Joan Erikson states that her husband always held that the individual and society are intricately woven (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J, 1997, p.114).He attributes psychosocial manifestations to each of his stages and also describes the processes and experiences of the soma, the psyche and the ethos. (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J, 1997, p.25). However, he has not explicated this aspect of his theory as fully as he did the stages of individual development. (Sugarman L. 1986 p.84). Erikson defines these social influences quite precisely as the individuals radius of significant relations whereas Bronfenbrenners theory allows for a more individually tailored, contextual approach. Both Erikson and Bronfenbrenner were active into their eightieth decade and remained engaged in cri tical reflection of their work. Erikson worked on the blueprint for his ninth stage and in 1994, Uri Bronfenbrenner renamed his theory bioecological systems theory to emphasize that a childs own biology is a primordial environment fuelling her development(http//www.cmskids.com/providers/early_steps/training/documents/bronfenbrenners_ecological.pdf.) While Eriksons writing is artistic and literary, Bronfenbrenners is scientific and at times political. Bronfenbrenner advocated experimentation in a real setting as opposed to the traditional research laboratory approach, although he did not dispense with the latter as being of use and alludes to the as yet fallow power of the laboratory as an ecological contrast. (Bronfenbrenner 1977, p.514) At the centre of both these theories is the individual. These are not opposing theories but two perspectives in search of a similar understanding. Bronfenbrenner himself make this clear A variety of approaches are needed if we are to make progress toward the ultimate goal of understanding human development in context (Bronfenbrenner 1977 p.529).BibliographyBee H., & Boyd D. ( 2003). The Developing Child, 10th ed. Boston Allyn &Bacon. Bronfenbrenner U. (1977). Toward an Experimental Ecology of Human Development Electronic version. American Psychologist, 32, 513-531. Bronfenbrenner U. (1986). Ecology of the Family as a Context for Human Development Research Perspectives Electronic version. developmental Psychology, 22, 723-742. Erikson E.H. (1950). Childhood and Society. Middlesex Penguin Books Ltd. Erikson E.H., & Erikson J.M. (1997). The Life Cycle Completed, extended version. New York W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. Friere P. (1975). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Middlesex Penguin Books Ltd. Graham A. (2012). Psychology of Adult Learning, WIT, twenty-sixth March, 2012, Tralee Jordan A., Carlile O., & Stack A. (2008). Approaches to Learning a Guide for Teachers. Berkshire Open University Press. Richardson N., Clarke N., & Fowler C. (2013). A Report on the All-Ireland Young men and Suicide Project. Ireland Mens Health Forum in Ireland. Sugarman L. (1986). Life-Span Development Concepts, Theories and Interventions. London Routledge. Tennant M. (1997). Psychology & Adult Learning. London Routledge.Module Psychology of Adult Learning Level 6TitleCompare and contrast Eriksons eight stages of psychosocial development with Bronfenbrenners Ecological model of Development